1. Context Clues for Vocabulary
Strategies for deducing the meaning of unfamiliar words by examining the context in which they appear. Five main types of context clues are outlined: illustrations, synonyms, contrasts, inferences, and punctuation.
Illustrations:
- Words like such as, including, and for instance signal examples that clarify meaning.
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Example: "An occupation such as that of a hat maker or a postman..." clarifies "occupation" as a job.
Synonyms:
- Similar words in the sentence can reveal meaning.
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Example: "The patient's hippocampus was an uncharted minefield... the psychiatrist wondered whether that part of the brain..." Here, "brain" is a synonym clue for "hippocampus."
Contrasts (Antonyms):
- Opposite ideas or words help define meaning.
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Example: "Mary was known for having smooth skin, but... a papule on her nose..." The contrast with "smooth skin" helps deduce that "papule" is a blemish.
Inferences:
- General context or overall meaning of a paragraph.
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Example: "The haberdashery was Bob's favorite place; he bought all his suits there..." implies a haberdashery is a men's clothing store.
Punctuation:
- Parentheses, commas, or quotation marks can provide definitions.
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Example: "Matcha (Japanese green tea) has many health benefits."
2. Structural Word Analysis
Explores how breaking down words into prefixes, suffixes, and roots can help determine their meanings.
Prefixes
- re- (again): "reuse" = use again
- pre- (before): "prepare" = do before
- un- (not): "undo" = reverse action
Suffixes
- -ment (result): "government" = system of governing
- -tion (process): "invention" = act of inventing
- -ful (full of): "useful" = full of use
Root Words
- anim (life): "animate" = bring to life
- tox (poison): "toxic," "detox," "intoxicated"
- rhino (nose): "rhinoplasty," "rhinoceros"
3. Denotation vs. Connotation
Distinguishes between the literal (denotation) and emotional or cultural (connotation) meanings of words.
Shady
Denotation: blocks sunlight (neutral)
Connotation: suspicious or sly (negative)
Unique
Denotation: one of a kind
Connotation: can be positive (special) or negative (weird), depending on context
Childish vs. Childlike
Denotation: both refer to child-like behavior
Connotation:
- "Childish" = negative (immature)
- "Childlike" = positive (whimsical)
4. Types of Irony
Describes three main forms of irony in literature: verbal, dramatic, and situational.
Verbal Irony:
- The speaker says the opposite of what is meant.
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Example: Jonathan Swift's "A Modest Proposal" suggests eating children as satire.
- Includes ironic similes: "as clear as mud," "as soft as concrete."
Dramatic Irony:
- The audience knows more than the characters.
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Example: In Romeo and Juliet, the audience knows Juliet is alive, but Romeo does not.
Situational Irony:
- Events turn out opposite to what is expected.
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Example: A fire station burns down.